Assessing the Cognitive Basis of Instructional Media

I. Introduction

A number of factors have made an impact on classrooms and the manner in which instruction is accomplished. Some of those factors include the development of technology, issues of national school reform, cognitive educational research, instructional training programs, and the pervasiveness of technology. Consequently, there are educational researchers who are drawing attention to instructional media for its value within the field of education.

This paper will introduce and analyze certain cognitive educational standards that can be successfully met through the use of instructional media. These standards will be thoroughly explained, as will the role of instructional media to handle those standards. It will also be shown how instructional media can be used to impart metacognition.

II. Cognition in the Modern Classroom

Clark (2003) indicates a number of events in learning that must be considered by instructors and is outlined within Table A. The modern instructor can utilize the benefits of instructional media to approach those considerations. In sections A – I, the first nine standards will be explained. It will also be shown how the software products Dreamweaver and Flash compare against the ten standards throughout the entire paper. Table B provides an easy view comparison between the two products as they compare to the standards.

A. Minimization of Fatigue

Learners can become overloaded if they are required to work for long periods of time, even past 30 minutes (Clark, 2003: 69). Both Dreamweaver and Flash files can be created to manage load. Learners can have their instructional time divided into discrete segments that are under time fatigue thresholds. Learners can read tutorials, be engaged in interactive modules, and study graphic organizers. However, it must be understood stimulating learners through excessive information and visual extras can divide attention and reduce learning potential.

Dreamweaver and Flash can be used to manage divided attention by addressing methods of inputs, level of difficulty, and experience of the learner. Inputs, such as audio and visual, are better than dual audio sources or an excessive number of visuals. Difficult tasks must be handled separately, while it is possible to handle simple tasks in tandem. Also, multimedia files managed through Dreamweaver and Flash can take the experience level of the learner into play by gaining learner feedback and allowing learners to investigate material at their own pace.

B. Integration of Visuals and Text

The placement of text within visual examples plays a critical role with instruction. Traditional strategies within education often place text separate from the graphic. This causes divided attention. However, it has been shown that the integration of text within the graphic avoids divided attention (Clark, 2003: 77).

Due to the limitations of HTML and the graphical advantages of Flash, presentations using Flash are better suited for this standard. Flash can be used to integrate text with graphics, whereas the Dreamweaver tools, which ultimately use HTML commands, do not accommodate the manipulation of text. Dreamweaver can only manipulate text so that it wraps around graphics or aligns with graphics in a tabular form.

C. Advance Organizers

Dreamweaver and Flash can do an excellent job creating advance organizers. According to Clark (2003), “An advance organizer is information delivered in words or pictures prior to the lesson content that either activates relevant prior knowledge or provides prior knowledge that the learner can use to integrate the new information included in the lesson” (p 87). Clark also states there are two different types of graphic organizers: comparative (organizers that activate prior knowledge) and expository (organizers that provide new knowledge allow the integration of new knowledge).

Dreamweaver and Flash can be useful to meet the demands of this area of cognition. Dreamweaver can produce advance organizers that have less graphical advantages than Flash, yet both software products can be easily used to create text and graphic organizers. Learners within traditional environments may be able peruse their course text for advance organizers, but Dreamweaver and Flash multimedia can include dimensions such as video and audio as well as the issue of engaged learning brought upon by the need to physically operate the multimedia.

D. Introductory Problems

Introductory problems, or strategic problems used to launch units, carry out a variety of tasks. The tasks include stimulating group discussion, inspiring self-directed learning, leading students to develop learning goals, and reinforcing the need to develop a foundation of knowledge and skill. Barnes (n.d.) reports they are used for individual development, team building, networking, and icebreaking.

These introductory problems, sometimes called openers, do not require a sophisticated layout. With a weak layout requirement, Dreamweaver would be a product best suited for classroom openers. Dreamweaver’s relatively easy to use tools make it superior to the technical demands of Flash.

E. Memory Support

Learning new information or skills requires the use of two special terms, cognitive load and working memory. Cognitive load is the demand placed upon working memory to process a certain task or concept. Working memory is the space where learning occurs.

Soloman, H. (n.d.) claims instruction that reduces load on memory will have a beneficial affect upon learning. Soloman states Sweller’s research supports the following four instructional strategies to reduce working memory load:

1. Change problem solving methods to avoid means-ends approaches that impose a heavy working memory load, by using goal-free problems or worked examples.

2. Eliminate the working memory load associated with having to mentally integrate several sources of information by physically integrating those sources of information.

3. Eliminate the working memory load associated with unnecessarily processing repetitive information by reducing redundancy.

4. Increase working memory capacity by using auditory as well as visual information under conditions where both sources of information are essential (i.e. non-redundant) to understanding.

Table C indicates a number of methods that correlate with Sweller’s strategies above. A brief description accompanies each method (Clark, 2003: 51 - 59).

Multiple Dreamweaver capabilities allow it to meet Sweller’s strategies. It could provide pertinent information relating to various problems as alternate text within a mouse-over command. It could arrange information in formal tables using abbreviated text and play audio related to advance organizers. Similar features are available through Flash, but such a powerful program is not necessary to produce the aforementioned results.

F. Worked Examples

As presented within Table C from IIE above, providing worked examples is a way to manage memory load in learners. Supplying learners with problems that have already been completed consequently lowers their cognitive load. It enables learners to concentrate on procedures or techniques without having to understand all steps at once.

Dreamweaver is an excellent tool for creating worked examples. It is capable of combining text and graphics in an organized form. It can meaningfully arrange items and it can also point learners to supplementary information if there is a need to review lessons that target prior knowledge.

Dreamweaver can also do better than simply produce attractive layouts and links to tutorials. As a creator of dynamic material, Dreamweaver can produce worked examples that also have a few missing pieces of information. It can wait for a learner’s response and then check the response. This same feature can be used to create a dynamic exercise lesson, which is addressed below in the next section.

G. Practice Exercises

When instructors want to ensure learners possess necessary skills and/or knowledge, instructors use practice exercises. Practice problems are used to reinforce learning goals, identify students who need remediation, and provide students with confidence to proceed with further lessons. It is not mandatory practice exercises be geared toward basic understanding, but quite typically they are used in such a manner, given that skills are tested in isolation (Clark, 2003: 149).

Instructors who use multimedia tools to utilize practice exercises may be at an advantage over traditional educators. Dreamweaver will produce static HTML pages that are comparable to handouts offered through traditional means. However, Flash has the capability of monitoring input and checking it. Educational tools authored through Flash can grant learners with the ability of immediate feedback with practice exercises, placing learners who use such dynamic exercises at an advantage over students who are instructed through traditional practice exercises.

H. Graphics

The addition of graphics within instruction is an important consideration. Appropriate use can lead to enhanced learning. Factors for consideration include relevancy to learning goals, activation of appropriate prior knowledge, and the formation of new mental models. As an additional part of considering graphics, instructors must choose between six different types of graphics, as outlined in Table D (Clark, 2003: 105).

Both Dreamweaver and Flash are useful tools for creating instructional materials that meet guidelines for using graphics. Dreamweaver would be an appropriate choice for addressing graphic types such as decorative, representative, mnemonic, and organizational. For addressing transformational and interpretive types of graphics, where a more interactive environment is desired, Flash would be a better choice. However, both Dreamweaver and Flash could be used to potentially create graphics for each of the six types.

I. Evaluation Against Standards

Theories of motivation within education suggest numerous strategies. Deubel (2003) indicates, “Feedback can be used to reinforce, elaborate, clarify, present consequences of responses, demonstrate impact in context, note performance to date, diagnose, and prescribe.” Locatis (2001) writes, “A number of motivational strategies such as employing cues to gain and direct attention, offering encouragement, and providing problems that are challenging but still doable to instill confidence and feelings of accomplishment are used routinely in multimedia programs.”

The main thrust of Deubel and Locatis’ research rides either fully or in part on evaluating learners against a set of standards. Dreamweaver is a natural tool for creating instructional designs around standards-based learning due to its relative ease, compared to Flash, and its ability to monitor learner performance. Learners can be asked to respond to questions, gain feedback whether or not they are correct, and either send learners to other problems or indicate which standard needs to be reviewed.

Clark (2003: 212) identifies four suggestions for handling motivation. When instruction places learners in a receptive mode, instructors can call upon personal interests. For learners who have low skills or low confidence, instructors can place students in a directive mode and deliver lessons in small packets that slowly increase in complexity. For confident and skilled learners, a guided discovery mode, where learners investigate partially on their own, may be valuable. For mastery level learners who have high confidence, an exploratory mode, like a Montessori model, would be valuable.

Dreamweaver could be used to reflect Clark’s motivation strategies. Receptive and directive instruction could be created with Dreamweaver in the form of simple web pages. Guided discovery, or other modes that require feedback mechanisms, would require more sophisticated features of Dreamweaver. Again, this is yet another area that would be handled easier by Dreamweaver than Flash.

III. Metacognition Within Instruction

The definition of metacognition is the act of thinking about thinking, or the cognition of cognition. It is the ability to control one’s own thoughts (AlleyDog, 2004).

Metacognition is an important component for learner success. According to Clark (2003, p183), “Learners need higher self-regulatory skills to successfully initiate and complete self-directed learning than they need for classroom instruction.” Metacognitive strategies include changing behaviors based on the successes or lack of successes of those behaviors. Within formal learning situations, learners who were able to use metacognitive strategies would be able to adjust study techniques, activities within learning areas, and assignments based on past performance.

Instructors typically create heavily structured learning environments. They regulate learner behaviors and activities. Instructors manage time. They schedule events in a regimented format so learners can maximize their potential and gain the most they can possibly gain.

It can be seen that learners form a kind of learner dependence upon instructors and instructional centers. Learners depend upon others to be good students, for the most part. Within compulsory education, learners typically depend upon their educational institutions, teachers, families, community members, and, if need be, authority figures.

However, there are instructors who promote learners to be metacognitive. They show learners how to use self-checking mechanisms in order to teach learners to be independent. Doing so allows these learners to use strategies that allow them to be self-evaluating and dynamic. Consequently, these learners have a considerable edge over learners who do not use such strategies.

IV. An Outline of Metacognitive Skills

If learners are to become metacognitive, or aware of their abilities/behaviors and able to modify them to maximize performances, learners must be able to perform a number of tasks. According to Vockell (n.d.), the following skills outline metacognition for learners:

They must be able to monitor their cognitive processes.
They must resist using primitive strategies that superficially seem to get the job done.
They must have an adequate knowledge base.
They must set goals and make attributions that support the use of cognitive strategies.
They must transfer thinking strategies to new situations in which they would be appropriate.

Section V will be dedicated to delivering strategies for fostering the above skills using instructional media tools.

V. Developing Metacognition

To deliver strategies that will address metacognitive skills, Vockell’s skills outline above will be dealt with in sections A – E, below.

A. Self-Monitoring Cognitive Processes

Allowing learners to monitor their own thinking process can be done a number of ways. Learners can i) take notes during learning activities, ii) continuously update journals over the course of their training, iii) participate within online bulletin boards, iv) reflect on the thoughts and activities of other learners, and v.) compare their behavior and work (and the behavior and work of their peers) against a specific list of standards, or a rubric.

Many of these tasks can be easily included within learning environments. There are instructors who already demand that learners take accurate notes within traditional classrooms. Yet, there are instructors who do not necessarily create an environment for thoughtful reflection on learner progress.

Learners can be invited to critique their own work, the work of other learners, or compare different strategies. One way this can be accomplished is by having learners find where their work meets or exceeds a specific criterion within a rubric. On a less difficult scale, learners could be asked which of three given procedures or strategies render the best outcomes and compare against factors such as timeliness, reproducibility, style, and other factors pertinent to the learning material. This skill could be instilled through the use of instructional media, such as Flash. Flash’s ability to combine graphics, audio, text, and video makes it an exceptional candidate for introducing learners to constructive criticism.

Although, if the instructional media had no connection to the Internet, it would be difficult to cover all of the items mentioned above strictly through the use of instructional media devices. Instructional media could be used to test for knowledge acquisition to provide immediate feedback. If learners answer test items incorrectly, learners could be led to specific tutorials that cover the items that were answered incorrectly.

Instructional media that had access to the Internet could create an environment for student exchange. As a part of certain lessons, learners could be made to post particular comments regarding their own activities and the activities of other learners within a bulletin board. Such a bulletin board would invite higher order thinking under Bloom’s Taxonomy. Higher order thinking is not necessarily the standard for statements within classrooms.

B. Developing Successful Techniques

Learners have a tendency of finding solutions to problems, but the solutions can be ill-conceived or lack fundamental relevance. Instructional media could be created to handle this problematic area by checking to see if students are able to develop solutions that actually work. Flash files have the potential of immediately responding to learners’ solutions and then pointing learners in the correct direction based on those answers. Dreamweaver can also perform the same duties but does not have powerful graphics manipulation capabilities.

Clark (p 183) uses an example of 45,000 soldiers who need to be transported. If each bus can hold 36 soldiers, how many buses will be needed? A multiple choice or free response system could be devised for such a system. For the learners who respond ‘31 buses and a remainder of 12,’ they can be pointed in a direction to have them understand that a remainder is nonsensical. For the learners who respond ‘31, or some other number,’ they can be shown why the number is too high or too low using simple arithmetic.

Situations or applications problems are easily delivered via Dreamweaver. A number of them can be created and learner responses can be checked in real-time. Such real-time, instant feedback is one of the strengths that instructional media can boast. Using Dreamweaver in this manner also corresponds to educational philosophy that places the role of instructors as facilitators, not dispensers, of information.

C. Assessing Requisite Knowledge

Instruction involves imparting a set of skills or a set of information. The skills or information allow learners to accomplish certain tasks, which require a base set of skills and/or knowledge to build upon. To ensure that learners are ready to learn the instruction that is to come, there are three ways instructors can poke and prod learners to assess for this basic skills set and/or knowledge base. The three ways that instructors can pull on prerequisite knowledge are: using comparative advance organizers, expository advance organizers, and introductory problem discussions (Clark, 2003: 218).

The organizers inform learners how information and skills are linked together. They can be comprised of the use of visual or graphic cues combined with verbal explanations. They can also be in the form of written rationales that tie the old skills and knowledge base with the new.

For instance, a developer or an architect could convey changes in plans, possibly due to local ordinances, to contractors by using a graphic organizer. The organizer may show how changes to the foundation, electrical layout, or heating and ventilation system must be augmented. In the case of new material usage, contractors would have to follow up with their own instruction to foremen and workers so that all construction workers understand how to work with the new materials and changes to the design plan.

In the case of using instructional media, instructors can use it to perform the same duties as the examples shows above. A simple Flash presentation could show how the old plans are to be modified. It could inform others what materials changes are to be made, what skills are to be needed to work with the new materials, and how timelines, budgets, and other factors will be affected, all as a graphic organizer. Every step along the way, the Flash presentation could be used to inform contractors of the key areas that involve changes in operation, so that they too can impart instruction for subcontractors, foremen, and workers.

Similarly, instructional media could be used to pose introductory problems. To stimulate the need for new thinking measures or skills, instructional media could be used to deliver a simple problem that requires old skills; however, the problem also invites learners to develop new strategies to solve the problem. Instead of actually delivering the set of skills or knowledge base that explains new information, the learners themselves seemingly invent the techniques necessary to solve the problem, thereby feeling ownership to the techniques and actually understanding their importance.

D. Setting Goals and Adopting Cognitive Strategies

If learners are to reach a state in which they solve problems of their own, they must be able to approach situations using a variety of techniques. Clark (p190) uses a case that outlines a six-pattern mindset for problem-solving. The pattern includes reading, analyzing, exploring, planning, implementing, and verifying.

When novice mathematicians were compared to expert mathematicians, it was discovered that novices to the field relied heavily on only a few patterns, namely reading and exploring. Expert mathematicians used all six patterns and bounced from one to the other and possibly back again until a solution was achieved. It can be seen that experts must be able to pull from multiple patterns to solve difficult problems and this is not exclusive to only mathematicians.

Instructional media could be created to be an excellent resource for imparting this six-pattern approach. A graphic organizer could be created and accompanied by expository text to explain each of the six steps in the pattern. Learners could be led through an example of how a person could bounce back and forth between steps to accomplish a specific problem. Learners could be invited to solve a specific problem and asked to chart their progress between steps in the pattern. Dreamweaver files could help learners when they reach a roadblock in the process.

As another strategy for imparting the six-step pattern, instruction through Dreamweaver could be created in such a way as to move learners from one step to the next. Such a strategy may require the use of a fictitious person who is solving a particular problem. For this strategy, learners would have to indicate within a chart exactly when shifts occur between steps. A timeline of events aligned with pointers to steps in the pattern could be used and even checked by the instructional media for accuracy. Such a strategy would test for understanding of the six parts of the pattern.

E. Transferring Strategies to New Situations

If learners are to gain a deep understanding of the six-part strategy, they need to actually apply the steps in the strategy. Practicing the steps will allow learners to internalize the strategies. Learners can then encode the strategies within existing, long-term mental models.

Dreamweaver’s ability to create tutorials could be used to launch learners to investigate the six steps to solve a particular problem. Such a strategy could involve learners who are individually introduced to a specific problem. Instructional media would be used to make learners aware of all background information or at least how to acquire the pertinent information.

Learners could be arranged within small groups, where every member takes on a specific task within the team. A six-person team may have each member taking on a single part of the pattern. A three-person team would have each member taking on two parts of the pattern.

Forming teams would show learners a multitude of tasks. Not only would learners form an appreciation for the six-pattern system, but they would also be exercising a number of other tasks. The tasks would invite metacognitive skills brought upon by the very nature of teaming combined with the structure of multimedia tutorials through Dreamweaver.

VI. Conclusion

Dreamweaver and Flash are helpful tools that allow instructors to create vibrant learning environments. They can be used to produce content that addresses a number of key factors within the learning process. Cognitive factors such as minimizing fatigue, integrating visuals with test, introductory problems, practice problems, and more factors can be expertly managed via Dreamweaver and Flash.

It was shown that instruction covering metacognition will enable learners to develop productive avenues of reasoning and action. Engaging in metacognitive activities enables learners to navigate through the perils of various problems more easily because more skills are available to the learner. The ability to recognize dead-ends and the knowledge how to choose a successful strategy come with this mindset.

Since metacognition is a universal mindset that can be used within the confines of solving all problems, it makes it an extremely valuable mindset. Consequently, it can be said that instructors who approach techniques which impart metacognition are not just preparing learners for their immediate problems. Those instructors are preparing learners for their immediate problems and future problems they will face.
VII. Resources

AlleyDog (2004) Psychology Glossary. Online Resource Accessed on December 4^th, 2004 at: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.cfm?term=Metacognition

Barnes, R. (n.d.) Management Games: The Opener and its Role in Training. The Encyclopedia of Educational Technology, College of Education at San Diego State University. Online Resource Accessed on December 8^th, 2004 at: http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Articles/mgtgame/index.htm

Clark, R. (2003) Building Expertise: Cognitive Methods for Training and Performance Improvement. International Society for Performance Improvement.

Deubel, P. (2003). An investigation of behaviorist and cognitive approaches to instructional multimedia design. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia,12(1), 63-90.

Locatis, C. (2001) Instructional Design Theory and the Development of Multimedia

Programs Online Resource Accessed on December 12^th, 2004 at: http://lhncbc.nlm.nih.gov/lhc/docs/published/2001/pub2001048.pdf

Soloman, H. (n.d.) Cognitive Load Theory. Online Resource Accessed on December 11^th, 2004 at: http://tip.psychology.org/sweller.html

Vockell, E. (2004) Development of Thinking Skills, Chapter 7 of Educational Psychology: A Practical Approach. Online Resource Accessed on December 4^th, 2004 at: http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy7/edpsy7_development.htm
VIII. Appendix

Table A: Evaluative Instructional Media Standards
General Category	Specific Standard	Standard Number
Attention	Minimization of Fatigue	1
	Integration of Visuals and Text	2
Prior Knowledge	Advance Organizers	3
	Introductory Problems	4
Management of Working Memory	Memory Support	5
	Worked Examples	6
Building Mental Models	Practice Exercises	7
	Graphics	8
Motivation	Evaluation Against Standards	9
Metacognition	Cognitive Support Methods	10

Table B: Comparing Flash and Dreamweaver Against Standards
Standard Number	Specific Standard	Dreamweaver	Flash
1	Minimization of Fatigue	X	X
2	Integration of Visuals and Text		X
3	Advance Organizers		X
4	Introductory Problems	X
5	Memory Support	X
6	Worked Examples	X
7	Practice Exercises		X
8	Graphics	X	X
9	Evaluation Against Standards	X
10	Cognitive Support Methods	X	X

Table C: Methods that Optimize Use of Limited Working Memory Capacity
Method Number	Method Name	Description	Corresponding Sweller Strategy
1	Worked Examples	Integrate the use of problems that have already been completely solved. Theorists recommend asking specific questions related to various steps to ensure students review the examples.	1
2	Modality	Think twice before using explicit written explanations with graphic organizers. Instead, accompany organizers with verbal explanations.	4
3	Redundancy Effect	Duplicating written explanations with verbal explanations should be prevented only in the case complex graphics are present.	4
4	Extraneous Auditory Information	Avoid the use of adding music or non-essential sounds. Existing use of audio combined with music ends up competing within working memory.	3
5	Spatial Information via Visuals	When visual situations must be explained, written explanations do more poorly than actually using visual models and pictures.	2
6	Chunk Information	New information should be arranged in logical and meaningful patterns, categories, and groups. Doing otherwise adds to working memory and cognitive load becomes taxed.	2
7	Minimize Information Density	Instruction should be delivered in sizes that are not overwhelming to learners. It is better to overview an entire process into steps and then spiral through steps with individual lessons.	2
8	Learners Control Pacing	Learners who are able to control their own pacing are able to reduce cognitive load and gain deeper learning.	1
9	White Space	Minimize working load by utilizing white space.	2
10	Lean Text	Text that is reduced to summary and possibly accompanied with graphics and other visuals is more effective than detailed passages.	2
11	Related Concepts First	Learning is maximized when instruction is first focused on prelesson requirements and then focused on the main thrust of the lesson.	2
12	Pertinent Information Priority	Ancillary information, such as history, theory, and beneficial outcomes of a technique, does not help students understand information any better than when it’s not included with instruction.	2

Table D: Taxonomy of Graphics
Type	Explanation	Example
Decorative	Graphics used purely for artistic purposes	ü A cartoon figure or mascot image used to convey information ü Banners, buttons, colors
Representational	An actual model, picture, or diagram that is used to explain a physical object	ü Pictures of designs ü Computer screens ü Layouts
Mnemonic	A device used to call upon prior knowledge	ü Acronyms such as Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally to explain order of operations in mathematics
Organizational	A tool used to categorize information for chunking purposes	ü Hierarchical diagrams ü Business graphs
Transformational	An animated graphic or series of graphics that indicate how something functions	ü An animated, real-time graphic/video that shows how to operate a software product
Interpretive	A graphic that builds a mosaic upon which learners connect ideas and/or principles for processes or events	ü Illustration of a train system ü Sliding variables that produce changes in a graph ü Interface that represents the cycle of water in the atmosphere